Gastrointestinal parasitism in hoopoes (roundworms)
The hoopoe (Upupa epops) is a wild insectivorous bird sometimes encountered in wildlife rehabilitation centers or aviaries. Like many birds that feed on the ground, it can harbour roundworms (nematodes) in its digestive tract. This gastroin...
What is it?
The hoopoe (Upupa epops) is a wild insectivorous bird sometimes encountered in wildlife rehabilitation centers or aviaries. Like many birds that feed on the ground, it can harbour roundworms (nematodes) in its digestive tract. This gastrointestinal parasitism is often mild, but it can become problematic in a weakened or young bird, or one kept in captivity in poor hygiene conditions.
Commonly observed signs
These signs are neither exhaustive nor specific. Only a veterinarian can establish a diagnosis.
Related signs — each one links to its page:
In hoopoes, light roundworm infections often go unnoticed. As the parasite burden increases, progressive weight loss may occur despite preserved appetite, abnormal or looser droppings, dull and poorly maintained plumage, reduced activity and lethargy can develop. In young birds (chicks and juveniles), stunted growth and marked weakness are possible. In heavy infections, worms may occasionally be visible in the droppings.
When to consult without delay
This list does not replace veterinary advice. It gathers situations that justify a prompt consultation.
Causes and risk factors
The parasitism is caused by gastrointestinal nematodes, a group of roundworms that colonize the stomach, intestines or sometimes the oesophagus of insectivorous birds. In wild birds like the hoopoe, the species involved belong to families of avian nematodes typically found in ground-feeding insectivores. The bird becomes infected by ingesting larvae present in soil or contaminated water, or by consuming insects or invertebrates that serve as intermediate hosts for certain of these parasites.
Hoopoes that forage on the ground in damp areas or places soiled by droppings are at higher risk. Young birds, weakened birds, injured birds, and those recently brought to a wildlife rehabilitation center, as well as birds kept in captivity in poorly maintained enclosures, are more likely to develop clinically significant infestations. Stress, unbalanced nutrition, and overcrowding with other birds promote parasite establishment and multiplication.
Transmission
Transmission occurs through ingestion of worm larvae or eggs present in soil or water contaminated by infected droppings, or through consumption of insects serving as intermediate hosts for certain nematodes.
Diagnosis and care
Diagnosis is the veterinarian's responsibility, based on clinical examination and laboratory tests. Care is decided case by case.
The veterinarian relies on clinical examination of the bird and especially on parasitological analysis of droppings (microscopic examination for parasite eggs). This test identifies the type of parasite responsible and evaluates the degree of infestation. In some cases, additional diagnostics may be recommended if the bird's general condition warrants it.
Treatment
Treatment involves administering an antiparasitic medication suitable for birds, prescribed and dosed by a veterinarian experienced with wildlife or exotic birds, as the safety margin is narrow in small avian species. Nutritional support and rehydration may accompany treatment in a weakened bird.
Treatment depends on the cause and the animal's condition: it must be determined by a veterinarian. No self-medication.
Prevention
Maintaining good ground and feeder hygiene, regular enclosure and aviary cleaning, preventing stagnant water contamination, and providing appropriate varied nutrition reduce the risk. In rehabilitation centers or captive settings, regular fecal parasite screening allows detection of infestation before clinical signs appear. Isolating newly arrived birds for a health assessment is also a useful precaution.
Possible complications
Heavy untreated infestation can lead to severe malnutrition, dehydration, anemia, and general weakness that compromises survival chances, especially in young birds or those already weakened by injury or concurrent disease.
When to see a veterinarian
The bird loses weight despite apparent appetite
Droppings are abnormal, liquid, or contain visible parasites
The bird is lethargic or less active than usual
A young bird shows obvious growth delay
Any sign of weakness in a rescued or captive hoopoe
Prognosis
The outlook is generally good when infestation is detected and treated early in an otherwise healthy bird. It becomes more guarded in chicks, already weakened individuals, or in cases of heavy untreated parasite burden.
Frequently asked questions
Can a wild hoopoe in the wild have worms without being sick?
Yes, a light infestation of roundworms is common in wild insectivorous birds and doesn't always cause visible signs. The problem mainly occurs when the parasitic load becomes heavy or when the bird is already weakened.
How do you know if a hoopoe has intestinal worms?
The diagnosis is made by a veterinarian through microscopic examination of droppings, which allows for the detection of parasite eggs. Adult worms are rarely visible to the naked eye in feces.
Can you give antiparasitic medication to a hoopoe yourself?
No, that is strongly discouraged. Wild birds have particular sensitivity to certain antiparasitic drugs, and only a veterinarian can select the appropriate molecule and dosage suited to the bird's species and weight.
Is this parasitism transmissible to humans or other animals?
Gastrointestinal nematodes specific to insectivorous birds are not considered transmissible to humans. However, transmission to other captive birds sharing the same enclosure is possible.
References
ESCCAP — European Scientific Counsel Companion Animal Parasites
WOAH — Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (ex-OIE)
Content reviewed by the TunisieVet editorial team · Updated 20 August 2026
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